ࡱ > 7 bjbjUU 7| 7| *n & l ^ ^ ^ r r r r 8 l r Ka r "
g* g* g* _ _ _ _ _ _ _ $ b d R _ ^ g* ) g* g* g* _ k7
a k7 k7 k7 g* x
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_ k7 g* _ k7 k7
8 [ X ^ _
kr r 4 ] ( _ a 0 Ka :] /e 4 /e _ k7 r r
C u p r i n s
1 . N u c l e u l u i a t o m i c
C o n s t i t u e n ci i n u c l e u l u i a t o m i c
M a s a n u c l e u l u i
E n e r g i a d e l e g a t u r a
D e f e c t d e m a s a
2 . F o r ce n u c l e a r e s i m o d e l e n u c l e a r e
M o d e l u l p i c a t u r i i
M o d e l u l p a t u r i l o r n u c l e a r e
3 . R e a c ci i n u c l e a r e
F u z i u n e a n u c l e a r
F u z i u n e
4 . D e z i n t e g r a r e a r a d i o a c t i v a
D e z i n t e g r a r e a a l f a
D e z i n t e g r a r e a g a m a
L e g e a d e z i n t e g r r i i r a d i o a c t i v e
1 . N u c l e u l u i a t o m i c
n u r m a e x p e r i m e n t e l o r s - a s t a b i l i t c m a s a a t o m u l u i _i t o a t s a r c i n a p o z i t i v e s t e c o n c e n t r a t n t r - u n v o l u m m i c i n c e n t r u l a t o m u l u i , z o n n u m i t n u c l e u a t o m i c . n j u r u l n u c l e u l u i g r a v i t e a z u n n u m r d e e l e c t r o n i c a r e c o m p e n s e a z s a r c i n a p o z i t i v a n u c l e u l u i .
L a s f r _i t u l s e c o l u l u i t r e c u t a f o s t d e s c o p e r i t r a d i o a c t i v i t a t e a . E m i s i a d i n a t o m i a u n o r p a r t i c u l e n c r c a t e _i n e u t r e d i n p u n c t d e v e d e r e e l e c t r i c , c u m a r f i r a d i a ci i l e : a l f a , b e t a , g a m a , s - a c o n s t a t c a r f i e m i s e d i n n u c l e u . A c e s t l u c r u a d u s l a c o n c l u z i a c n u c l e u l a r a v e a _i e l o s t r u c t u r .
D u p d e s c o p e r i r e a n e u t r o n u l u i d e c t r e C h a d w i c k n 1 9 3 2 , H e i s e n b e r g _i I v a n e n k o a u e l a b o r a t n 1 9 3 3 m o d e l u l p r o t o n o - n e u t r o n i c a l n u c l e u l u i . C o n f o r m a c e s t u i m o d e l , n u c l e u l e s t e a l c t u i t d i n p r o t o n i _i n e u t r o n i . U n n u c l e u e s t e f o r m a t d i n Z p r o t o n i _i A - Z n e u t r o n i .
A c e s t m o d e l e s t e n c o n c o r d a n c c u r e z u l t a t e l e e x p e r i m e n t a l e r e f e r i t o a r e l a s a r c i n a , m a s a _i s p i n u l n u c l e a r .
n f u n c ci e d e n u m r u l d e p r o t o n i _i n e u t r o n i n u c l e e l e a u f o s t m p r ci t e n :
I z o b a r i a u a c e e a _i g r e u t a t e , a c e l a _i A : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
I z o t o p i a u a c e l a _i n u m r d e o r d i n e , a c e l a _i Z : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
I z o t o n i a c e l a _i n u m r d e n e u t r o n i , a c e l a _i A - Z : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
I z o m e r i a c e l a _i Z , a c e l a _i A , d a r a u t i m p u l d e v i a c d i f e r i t , c e e a c e n s e a m n c i z o m e r i i c o n s t i t u i e a c e l a _i m e d i u n d i v e r s e s t r i d e e x c i t a r e . T r e c e r e a d i n t r - o s t a r e n a l t a s e f a c e p r i n e m i s i a u n u i f o t o n d e l a u n u l l a a l t u l .
N u c l e e o g l i n d p e r e c h i d e i z o b a r i n c a r e n u m r u l d e p r o t o n i d i n t r - u n n u c l e u e s t e e g a l c u n u m r u l d e n e u t r o n i d i n c e l l a l t n u c l e u : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 .
S a r c i n a n u c l e u l u i a t o m i c r e p r e z i n t n u m r u l d e p r o t o n i d i n n u c l e u : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 . D e t e r m i n a r e a s a r c i n i i n u c l e u l u i n s e a m n d e t e r m i n a r e a n u m r u l u i d e o r d i n e Z .
C o n s t i t u i e n t i i n u c l e u l u i a t o m i c
I n c o m p o z i t i a n u c l e u l u i i n t r a Z p r o t o n i .
- m a s a p r o t o n u l u i : m p = ( 1 , 0 0 7 2 7 6 4 7 0 0 , 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 ) u d e c i m a s a p r o t o n u l u i e s t e a p r o a p e egala cu 1u
-masa neutronului: mn=(1,0086650,000003)u aproximativ 1u
nucleul este format din Z protoni si (A-Z) neutroni
-numarul de masa A este egal cu numarul de protoni si de neutroni din nucleu si indica aproximativ masa sa
-nucleonii sunt constituentii nucleului.
Masa nucleului
Masa nucleului s e p o a t e s c r i e c a s u m a m a s e l o r n u c l e o n i l o r c o m p o n e n ci E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 _i s e e x p r i m n u n i t ci d e m a s . 1 u = m ( 1 2 C ) / 1 2 . U n i t a t e a d e m a s a r e v a l o a r e a u = 1 , 6 6 1 0 - 2 7 K g .
C o m p a r n d v a l o r i l e e x p e r i m e n t a l e a l e m a s e l o r c u c e l e r e z u l t a t e d i n f o r m u l a E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 s - a c o n s t a t a t c m a s a d e t e r m i n a t e x p e r i m e n t a l e s t e m a i m i c d e c t c e a d e t e r m i n a t t e o r e t i c .
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
u n d e E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 e s t e n u m i t d e f e c t d e m a s .
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 s - a i n t e r p r e t a t c a f i i n d c o r e s p u n z t o r u n u i d e f e c t d e e n e r g i e p e b a z a r e l a ci e i l u i E i n s t e i n :
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
U n n u c l e u c o n s t i t u i e u n s i s t e m l e g a t d e p a r t i c u l e _i p e n t r u a s c o a t e o p a r t i c u l d i n a c e s t s i s t e m e s t e n e c e s a r s f u r n i z m n u c l e u l u i o a n u m i t c a n t i t a t e d e e n e r g i e e g a l c u e n e r g i a c u e n e r g i a d e l e g t u r a p a r t i c u l e i n n u c l e u . A c e s t d e f e c t d e e n e r g i e s - a i n t e r p r e t a t c a f i i n d e n e r g i a p e c a r e o e l i b e r e a z n u c l e e l e l a f o r m a r e a l u i d i n n u c l e o n i l i b e r i _i c a r e e s t e s t r i c t e g a l c u e n e r g i a p e c a r e t r e b u i e s o f u r n i z m n u c l e u l u i p e n t r u a l d e s f a c e n n u c l e o n i i c o m p o n e n ci , a c e a s t e n e r g i e e s t e e n e r g i a d e l e g t u r a n u c l e u l u i .
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
D a c e n e r g i a d e l e g t u r e s t e m a r e , n u c l e u l e s t e m a i s t a b i l , d i f e r e n ca d i n t r e s u m a m a s e l o r n u c l e o n i l o r c o m p o n e n ci _i m a s a n u c l e u l u i e s t e m a i m i c .
S t a b i l i t a t e a n u c l e e l o r r e p r e z i n t e n e r g i a d e l e g t u r r a p o r t a t l a n u m r u l d e n u c l e o n i d i n n u c l e u E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 . C u m n u t o ci n u c l e o n i i a u a c e e a _i e n e r g i e d e l e g t u r s e v o r b e _t e d e s p r e v a l o a r e a m e d i e a e n e r g i e i d e l e g t u r p r o n u c l e a r E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
F i g . 1 . V a r i a ci a s t a b i l i t ci i n u c l e u l u i n f u n c ci e d e n u m r u l d e m a s
M a x i m u l s e r e a l i z e a z n j u r u l l u i A = 6 0 c u E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 = 8 . 6 M e V . N u c l e e l e d e l a m i j l o c u l s i s t e m u l u i p e r i o d i c s e c a r a c t e r i z e a z p r i n s t a b i l i t a t e m a r e , i a r c e l e u _o a r e _i m a i g r e l e a u s t a b i l i t a t e a m a i m i c .
R a p o r t u l d i n t r e n u m r u l d e p r o t o n i _i n u m r u l d e n e u t r o n i d i n n u c l e u e s t e o m s u r a s t a b i l i t ci i n u c l e u l u i .
D a c r e p r e z e n t m g r a f i c p o z i ci a n u c l e e l o r n t r - u n s i s t e m d e c o o r d o n a t e Z _i N = ( A - Z ) s e c o n s t a t u r m t o a r e l e :
F i g . 2 . D i a g r a m a S e g r . a ) s u r p l u s d e p r o t o n i , b ) s u r p l u s d e n e u t r o n i c ) c u r b a d e s t a b i l i t a t e , Z = N .
P e n t r u n u c l e e l e u _o a r e s t a b i l i t a t e a s e r e a l i z e a z l a Z / N = 1 . P e m s u r c e n u m r u l d e m a s c r e _t e s t a b i l i t a t e a s e d e p l a s e a z s p r e n u c l e e c u n u m r d e n e u t r o n i m a i m a r e d e c t n u m r u l d e p r o t o n i .
D e a s u p r a a c e s t e i c u r b e d e s t a b i l i t a t e s e g s e s c n u c l e e c u s u r p l u s d e p r o t o n i f a ca d e n u c l e e l e s t a b i l e . S u b a c e a s t c u r b s e g s e s c n u c l e e l e c u s u r p l u s d e n e u t r o n i . C u m n n a t u r o r i c e s i s t e m t i n d e d e l a s i n e s t r e a c s p r e o s t a r e c t m a i s t a b i l , n u c l e e l e d e d e a s u p r a c u r b e i d e s t a b i l i t a t e _i v a t r a n s f o r m a u n p r o t o n n n e u t r o n , c e e a c e n s e a m n c e l e s u n t n u c l e e E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 a c t i v e ( e m i s i e d e p o z i t r o n i ) , i a r c e l e d e s u b c u r b a d e s t a b i l i t a t e _i v o r t r a n s f o r m a u n n e u t r o n n p r o t o n f i i n d n u c l e e E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 a c t i v e ( e m i s i e d e e l e c t r o n i ) .
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
R a z a n u c l e u l u i a t o m i c r e p r e z i n t d i s t a n ca p n l a c a r e s e f a c s i m ci t e f o r ce l e n u c l e a r e s p e c i f i c e , a c e l e f o r ce c a r e a s i g u r s t a b i l i t a t e a u n u i n u c l e u f o r m a t d i n t r - u n n u m r m a r e d e p r o t o n i i n t r e c a r e s e e x e r c i t f o r ce d e r e p u l s i e c o u l o m b i a n .
M o m e n t e c i n e t i c e _i m o m e n t e m a g n e t i c e a l e n u c l e u l u i .
E x i s t e n t a a c e s t o r m o m e n t e a r e z u l t a t d i n d e s p i c a r e a l i n i i l o r d e s t r u c t u r a f i n a a s p e c t r e l o r , n u m i t a s t r u c t u r a h i p e r f i n a . A s t f e l s p i n u l n u c l e a r e s t e :
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 r e p r e z i n t m o m e n t u l m a g n e t i c n u c l e a r _i E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 m a g n e t o n u l n u c l e a r .
E n e r g i a d e l a g a t u r a p e n u c l e o n
E n e r g i a d e l e g a t u r a p e n u c l e o n i :
O v a l o a r e m a r e a e n e r g i e i d e l e g a t u r a p e n u c l e o n i n s e a m n a o s t a b i l i t a t e
m a r e a n u c l e u l u i . N u c l e e l e d e m a s a i n t e r m e d i a r e , c u A c u p r i n s i n t r e 4 0 s i 1 4 0 a u e n e r g i a d e l e g a t u r a p e n u c l e o n m a x i m a
2 . F o r ce n u c l e a r e si modele nucleare
Bariera de potential. Nucleul format din protoni si neutroni este o formatie stabila, ceea ce da de nota ca intre nucleoni se exercita forte atractive foarte puternice, care, cel putin la distante mici, compenseaza si intrec fortele de repulsie electrostatice dintre protoni. Experientele de difuzie a particulelor PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$\alpha $"INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/Forte%20nucleare__1.png" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"au aratat ca distente inferioare lui 10PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$^{-12}$" cm nu se mai aplica riguros legea lui Colomb, intrucat peste fortele de repulsie se suprapun fortele de atractie. Cu acelesi rezultate s-au soldat si experientele de difuzie a protonilor si neutronilor rapizi. La distante mici apar forte atractive chiar si intre protoni. Fortele atractive dintre nucleoni care asigura coeziunea nucleului se numesc forte nucleare. Ele sunt forte de bataie scurta, se anuleaza foarte repede cu distanta, spre deosebire de fortele coulombiene care se resimt inca la distante considerabile (forte de bataie lunga). In consecinta fortele de atractie nucleare vor actiona numai intre nucleonii vecini, iar fortele de repulsie electrostatice intre toti protonii din nucleu. In campul electrostatic al nucleului protonul poseda energia potentiala.PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=MATH"
Reprezentand PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$E_{p}$"in functie de distanta r, se capata o hiperbola echilaterala. Daca se tine cont si de fortele atractive, in apropierea nucleului energia potentiala totala nu va creste la infinit, ci numai pana la maxim, atins atunci cand fortele atractive echilibreaza pe cele repulsive. Fie R distanta la care acest lucru se realizeaza. La distantele rPRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$_{p}$" in functie de r ne arata ca nucleul se afla intr-o groapa de potential, impresmuita de o bariera de potential de inaltime EPRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$_{m} $". Presupunand ca distanta R masoara raza nucleului si ca legea lui Coulomb s-ar aplica pana la varful barierei, se poate evalua inaltimea barierei punand r=R in relatia.
Dupa conceptia clasica, o particula PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$\alpha $"ar putea parasi nucleul daca ar ajunge pe varful barierei de potential. Odata ajunsa acolo, fortele de repulsie electrostatica ar efectua un lucru asupra ei, particula s-ar "rostogoli" de pe bariera si ar primi o enrgie cinetica egala cu EPRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$_{\text{m}}$". Datele experimentale contrazic insa aceasta conceptie clasica. Luand pentru raza nucleului de uraniu 9*10PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$^{\text{-13}}$" cm, pentru inaltimea barierei de potential obtinem EPRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$_{\text{m}}$"=29MeV. Particulele PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$\alpha $"emise de nucleul U au in schimb o energie de numai 4.15MeV. S-ar putea crede ca sa evaluat gresit raza nucleului. Dar razele PRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d"PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$\alpha $"emise de ThC', avand energia de 8.8 MeV, nu pot patrunde in nucleul U, Sunt reflectate de bariera de potential. Acest fenomen nu poate fi explicat cu ajutorul fizicii clasice. Lucrurile se petrec ca si cum particulaPRIVATEPRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT="INCLUDEPICTURE "../../Alinutzu/Desktop/swptransparent.gif" \* MERGEFORMAT \d" PRIVATE "TYPE=PICT;ALT=$\alpha $"din nucleu ar "sapa un tunel" prin bariera de potential si energia sa ar corespunde numai inaltimii la care a fost sapat acest tunel. Fenomenul a capatat denumirea de efect de tunel si a fost explicat doar de mecanica cuantica.
Modelul picaturii
Ca si in cazul atomului, vom cauta acum sa vedem cum este construit nucleul, cunoscand componentii si fortele ce sunt in joc. In interiorul nucleului, fortele nucleare sunt cele predominante si deci ele vor determina in prima aproximatie nodul de aranjare a nucleonilor in nucleu. Fiind forte de distanta scurta de actiune, fortele nucleare vor actiona practic numai asupra primilor vecini, pe cand fortele electrostatice vor actiona asupra totalitatii protonilor din nucleu. Aceste deosebiri vor conduce la o crestere mai rapida a numarului de neutroni decat de protoni pentru nucleele stabilite. Cu alte cuvinte neutronii joaca un rol de ciment in edificiul nuclear. Din cauza fortelor nucleare puternice, de atractie, particulele din nucleu sunt strans unite, astfel incat formeaza un sistem compact. Se poate spune de asemenea ca nucleonii de la periferia nucleului vor fi sub actiunea unor forte indreptate spre centrul nucleului asemanatoare fortelor de tensiune superficiala. Toate aceste observatii ne permit sa aproximam n u c l e u l c u o p i c a t u r a d e l i c h i d , i n c a r e f i e c a r e p a r t i c u l a l a v o l u m u l t o t a l n u c l e a r c u v o l u m u l s a u p r o p r i u , c a r e e s t e a p r o x i m a t i v c o n s t a n t ( v o ) . I n a c e s t c a z p u t e m s c r i e :
v o A = 4 R / 3 , d e u n d e :
R = r o ( A ) , c u r o = 1 . 5 "1 0 c m ,
u n d e A e s t e n u m arul de masa, R- raza medie a nucleului sferic, ro- o constanta care este determinata experimental. Aceasta formula semi-empirica, se verifica bine experimental si dovedeste astfel corectitudinea acestei imagini simple asupra nucleului. Folosindu-ne de ace a s t a r e l a t i e , p u t e m c a l c u l a d e n s i t a t e a m a t e r i e i n u c l e a r e c a r e e s t e : 1 . 6 7 2 "1 0 A
= M / V = - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - H" 1 0 k g / m .
4 / 3 " r o A
R e z u l t a d e a i c i o v a l o a r e e n o r m d e m a r e p e n t r u d e n s i t atea materiei nucleare, cat si faptul ca densitatea nu depinde de tipul nucleului. Toate aceste concluzii, concordante cu experienta, ca si altele pe care nu le vom discuta, fac din modelul picaturii un ajutor pretios in intelegerea fenomenelor nucleare.
Modelul paturilor nucleare
Asemanator cu periodicitatea proprietatilor fizico-chimice ale elementelor, si in cazul nucleelor au fost descoperite unele proprietati de periodicitate. Se constata astfel, ca nucleele cu un numar de 2,8,20,50,82,126,..... protoni, au o energie de legatura mai mare ca celelalte nuclee si deci sunt mai stabile. Aceasta observatie, ca si multe altele, nu pot fi explicate prin modelul picaturii.
Periodicitatea unor proprietati nucleare, functie de numarul de protoni sau de neuroni, indica existenta in interiorul nucleului a unor paturi nucleare. Din cauza impachetarii stranse a nucleonilor, existenta acestor paturi nu mai este legata si de o grupare spatiala corespunzatoare a nucleonilor. Pe baza acestui model de paturi, se pot determina starile de energie ale nucleonilor din nucleu, care se dovedesc a fi cuantificate. Modelul paturilor nucleare pune in evidenta astfel caracterul individual al miscarii particulelor in nucleu, spre deosebire de modelul picaturii care scoate in evidenta comportarea colectiva a nucleonilor in nucleu.
Pe langa aceste doua modele nucleare, au mai fost dezvoltate si alte modele mai mult sau mai putin complete. Dintre toate, cel care in momentul de fata pare a descrie cel mai bine comportarea nucleonilor in nucleu, ca si proprietatile nucleelor, este modelul generalizat, care reuneste atat caracterul colectiv al miscarii nucleonilor, dat de modelul picaturii, cat si aspectele individuale ale miscarii lor, descrise in cadrul modelului paturilor nucleare.
3. Reactii nucleare
Reactia nucleara este procesul prin care doua particule sau sisteme de particule
interactioneaza prin forte nucleare si ansamblul se desface in mai multe
particule sau sisteme de particule
- produsii de reactie sunt particulele sau nucleele din starea finala
- reactia nucleara: a+X->Y+b unde
a: particula sau nucleul proiectil care este de obicei accelerat pentru a
produce reactia
X:nucleul tinta
Y:nucleul rezidual
b:particula sau nucleul mai usor rezultat din reactie
Notatia prescurtata: X(a,b)Y
- o reactie nucleara se poate produce numai daca sunt indeplinite o serie de
conditii
Legi de conservare in interactiunile nucleare
Legea conservarii energiei
Energia sistemelor va fi energia totala relativista: W=mc2=m0c2+Ec
Legea conservarii energiei totale relativiste: Wa+Wx=Wy+Wb
Deci:
Energia de reactie:
Legea conservarii impulsului
Legea conservarii sarcinii electrice
Suma sarcinilor electrice ale particulelor inainte de reactie este egala cu
suma sarcinilor electrice ale particulelor dupa reactie
Legea conservarii numarului de nucleoni
Legea dezintegrarii radioactive
N(t) - numarul de sisteme in stare excitata la momentul t
N0 - numarul de sisteme in stare excitata la momentul initial t=0
Viata medie a sistemului t = 1/P inversul probabilitatii de tranzitie in
unitatea de timp
Timpul de injumatatire T1/2 - timpul dupa care se dezintegreaza jumatate
din numarul N0 de nuclee in stare metastabila
Fuziune si fisiune nucleara
F u z i u n e a n u c l e a r a f o s t r e a l i z a t p e n t r u p r i m a d a t p r i n a n i i 1 9 3 0 p r i n b o m b a r d a r e a u n e i ci n t e c o n t ci n n d d e u t e r i u , i z o t o p u l h i d r o g e n u l u i c u m a s a 2 , c u d e u t e r o n i n t r - u n c i c l o t r o n . P e n t r u a c c e l e r a r a z a d e d e u t e r o n i e s t e n e c e s a r f o l o s i r e a u n e i i m e n s e c a n t i t ci d e e n e r g i e , m a r e a m a j o r i t a t e t r a n s f o r m n d u - s e n c l d u r . D i n a c e a s t c a u z f u z i u n e a n u e s t e o c a l e e f i c i e n t d e a p r o d u c e e n e r g i e . n a n i i 1 9 5 0 p r i m a d e m o n s t r a ci e l a s c a r l a r g a e l i b e r r i i u n e i c a n t i t ci m a r i d e e n e r g i e n u r m a f i z i u n i i , n e c o n t r o l a t a f o s t f c u t c u a j u t o r u l a r m e l o r t e r m o n u c l e a r e n S U A , U R S S , M a r e a B r i t a n i e _i F r a n ca . A c e a s t e x p e r i e n c a f o s t f o a r t e s c u r t _i n u a p u t u t f i f o l o s i t l a p r o d u c e r e a d e e n e r g i e e l e c t r i c .
n c a d r u l f i s i u n i i , n e u t r o n u l , c a r e n u a r e s a r c i n e l e c t r i c p o a t e i n t e r a c ci o n a u _o r c u n u c l e u l , n c a z u l f u z i u n i i , n u c l e e l e a u a m n d o u s a r c i n p o z i t i v _i n m o d n a t u r a l n u p o t i n t e r a c ci o n a p e n t r u c s e r e s p i n g c o n f o r m l e g i i l u i C o u l o m b , l u c r u c a r e t r e b u i e c o n t a c a r a t . A c e s t l u c r u s e p o a t e f a c e c n d t e m p e r a t u r a g a z u l u i e s t e s u f i c i e n t d e m a r e 5 0 - 1 0 0 m i l i o a n e C .
n t r - u n g a z d e h i d r o g e n g r e u i z o t o p i i d e u t e r i u _i t r i t i u l a a _a t e m p e r a t u r i a r e l o c f u z i u n e a n u c l e a r , e l i b e r n d u - s e a p r o x i m a t i v 1 7 , 6 M e V p e e l e m e n t d e f u z i u n e .
E n e r g i a a p a r e l a n c e p u t c a e n e r g i e c i n e t i c a l u i h e l i u 4 , d a r e s t e t r a n s f o r m a t r e p e d e n c l d u r . D a c d e n s i t a t e a d e g a z e s t e s u f u c i e n t , l a a c e s t e t e m p e r a t u r i t r e b u i e s f i e d e 1 0 - 5 a t m , a p r o a p e v i d , e n e r g i a n u c l e u l u i d e h e l i u 4 p o a t e f i t r a n s f e r a t g a z u l u i d e h i d r o g e n , m e n ci n n d u - s e t e m p e r a t u r a n a l t _i r e a l i z n d u - s e o r e a c ci e n l a n c.
P r o b l e m a d e b a z n a t i n g e r e a f u z i u n i i n u c l e a r e e s t e c l d u r a g a z u l u i _i e x i s t e n ca u n e i c a n t i t ci s u f i c i e n t e d e n u c l e e p e n t r u u n t i m p n d e l u n g a t p e n t r u a p e r m i t e e l i b e r a r e a u n e i e n e r g i i s u f i c i e n t e p e n t r u a n c l z i g a z u l .
O a l t p r o b l e m e s t e c a p t a r e a e n e r g i e i _i c o n v e r t i r e a n e n e r g i e e l e c t r i c . L a o t e m p e r a t u r d e 1 0 0 . 0 0 0 C t o ci a t o m i i d e h i d r o g e n s u n t i o n i z a ci , g a z u l f i i n d c o m p u s d i n n u c l e e n c r c a t e p o z i t i v _i e l e c t r o n i l i b e r i n c r c a ci n e g a t i v , s t a r e n u m i t p l a s m .
P l a s m a c a l d p e n t r u f u z i u n e n u s e p o a t e o b ci n e d i n m a t e r i a l e o b i _n u i t e . P l a s m a s - a r r c i f o a r t e r e p e d e , _i p e r e ci i v a s u l u i a r f i d i s t r u _i d e c l d u r . D a r p l a s m a p o a t e f i c o n t r o l a t c u a j o t o r u l m a g n e ci i l o r u r m n d l i n i i l e d e c m p m a g n e t i c s t n d d e p a r t e d e p e r e ci .
n 1 9 8 0 a f o s t r e a l i z a t u n a s t f e l d e d i s p o z i t i v , n t i m p u l f u z i u n i i t e m p e r a t u r a f i i n d d e 3 o r i m a i m a r e c a a s o a r e l u i .
O a l t c a l e p o s i b i l d e u r m a t e s t e d e a p r o d u c e f i z i u n e d i n d e u t e r i u _i t r i t i u p u s n t r - o s f e r m i c d e s t i c l c a r e s f i e b o m b a r d a t d i n m a i m u l t e l o c u r i c u u l l a s e r p u l s n d s a u c u r a z e i o n i c e g r e l e . A c e s t p r o c e d e u p r o d u c e o i m p l o z i e a s f e r e i d e s t i c l , p r o d u c n d u - s e o r e a c ci e t e r m o n u c l e a r c a r e a p r i n d e c a r b u r a n t u l .
P r o g r e s u l n f u z i u n e a n u c l e a r e s t e p r o m i ct o r d a r n f p t u i r e a d e s i s t e m e p r a c t i c e d e c r e a r e s t a b i l e d e r e a c t i e d e f u z i u n e c a r e s p r o d u c m a i m u l t e n e r g i e d e c t c o n s u m v a m a i l u a c e v a d e c e n i i p e n t r u r e a l i z a r e . A c t i v i t a t e a d e e x p e r i m e n t a r e e s t e s c u m p . T o t u _i u n e l e p r o g r e s e s a u o b ci n u t n 1 9 9 1 c n d o c a n t i t a t e i m p o r t a n t d e e n e r g i e ( 1 , 7 m i l i o a n e W ) a f o s t p r o d u s c u a j u t o r u l r e a c ci e d e f u z i u n e c o n t r o l a t n L a b o r a t o a r e l e J E T d i n F i n l a n d a . n 1 9 9 3 c e r c e t t o r i i d e l a U n i v e r s i t a t e a d i n P r i n c e t o n a u o b ci n u t 5 . 6 m i l i o a n e W . n a m b e l e c a z u r i s - a c o n s u m a t m a i m u l t e n e r g i e d e c t s - a c r e a t .
D a c r e a c ci a d e f e z i u n e d e v i n e p r a c t i c o f e r o s e r i e d e a v a n t a j e : o s u r s d e d e u t e r i u a p r o a p e i n f i n i t d i n o c e a n e , i m p o s i b i l i t a t e a d e a p r o d u c e a c c i d e n t e d i n c a u z a c a n t i t ci i m i c i d e c a r b u r a n t , r e z i d u r i i l e n u c l e a r e s u n t m a i p u ci n r a d i o a c t i v e _i m a i s i m p l u d e m a n i p u l a t .
4 . D e z i n t e g r a r e a r a d i o a c t i v a
R a d i o a c t i v i t a t e a e s t e o p r o p r i e t a t e a n u c l e e l o r a t o m i c e d e a s e d e z i n t e g r a s p o n t a n p r i n e m i s i a u n o r r a d i a ci i a l f a _i g a m a .
L e g e a d e z i n t e g r a r i i r a d i o a c t i v e
P r o b a b i l i t a t e a d e d e z i n t e g r a r e a u n u i n u c l e u n u n i t a t e a d e t i m p e s t e s i s e n u m e s t e c o n s t a n t a d e d e z i n t e g r a r e . U n i t a t e a d e m s u r n S . I e s t e s - 1
A c t i v i t a t e a u n u i e _a n t i o n r a d i o a c t i v s e n o t e a z c u _i r e p r e z i n t p r o b a b i l i t a t e a d e d e z i n t e g r a r e a c e l o r N n u c l i z i r a d i o a c t i v i d i n e _a n t i o n u l r e s p e c t i v . S t u d i i n d e l e m e n t e l e r a d i o a c t i v e R u t h e r f o r d _i S o d y a u d e s c o p e r i t c p r o c e s e l e d e d e z i n t e g r a r e s u n t p r o c e s e c e s e s u p u n u n o r l e g i s t a t i s t i c e , n u s e p o a t e p r e v e d e a m o m e n t u l c n d u n a n u m i t n u c l i d r a d i o a c t i v d i n s u r s s e v a d e z i n t e g r a . a u s t a b i l i t _i c d e z i n t e g r a r e a u n u i n u c l i d n u e s t e i n f l u e n ca t d e c e i l a l ci n u c l i z i e x i s t e n ci n e _a n t i o n u l r a d i o a c t i v . A e s t e d i r e c t p r o p o r ci o n a l c u n u m r u l d e n u c l i z i r a d i o a c t i v i d i n s u r s . L e g e a i n t e g r a l a d e z i n t e g r r i i r a d i o a c t i v e s t a b i l i t e x p e r i m e n t a l p e b a z a r e z u l t a t e l o r l u i R u t h e r f o r d _i S o d y e s t e : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 , N 0 e s t e n u m r u l d e n u c l i z i r a d i o a c t i v i d i n e _a n t i o n l a m o m e n t u l t = 0 , N ( t ) e s t e n u m r u l d e n u c l i z i r a d i o a c t i v i c a r e a u r m a s n e d e z i n t e g r a ci d u p t i m p u l t .
P r i n d i f e r e n ci e r e s e o b ci n e E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 . U l t i m a r e l a ci e r e p r e z i n t l e g e a d i f e r e n ci a l a d e z i n t e g r r i i r a d i o a c t i v e , E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 f i i n d n u m r u l d e n u c l i z i c a r e s e d e z i n t e g r e a z n u n i t a t e a d e t i m p .
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 r e p r e z i n t p r o b a b i l i t a t e a c a c e c e l e n n u c l e e s s e d e z i n t e g r e z e n u n i t a t e a d e t i m p .
L e g e a d e d e z i n t e g r a r e r a d i o a c t i v e s t e : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
n l a b o r a t o r o s u r s S d e r a d i o a c t i v i t a t e _i c u a j u t o r u l u n u i d e t e c t o r d e r a d i a ci i c a r e n r e g i s t r e a z n u m r u l d e r a d i a ci i c e i n t r n d e t e c t o r n u n i t a t e a d e t i m p , e x p r i m n d v i t e z a d e n u m r a r e R .
L e g t u r a d i n t r e R _i a c t i v i t a t e a s u r s e i . O r i c e s u r s r a d i o a c t i v n e p o l a r i z a t e m i t e i z o t o p , c u a c e e a _i p r o b a b i l i t a t e n t o a t e d i r e c ci i l e , n d e t e c t o r a j u n g e n u m a i r a d i a ci i l e e m i s e s u b u n u n g h i s o l i d . P e d e t e c t o r a j u n g n u m a i E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 , E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 f a c t o r g e o m e t r i c , n u t o a t e r a d i a ci i l e a j u n s e p e d e t e c t o r d a u u n i m p u l s d e a c e e a s e d e f i n e _t e e f i c a c i t a t e a s u r s e i , r e p r e z i n t r a p o r t u l d i n t r e n u m r u l d e r a d i a ci i n r e g i s t r a t e ( n u m r u l i m p u l s u r i l o r l a i e _i r e ) _i n u m r u l d e r a d i a ci i a j u n s e p e d e t e c t o r . D e c i v o r f i n r e g i s t r a t e . E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
E x e m p l u : f i e s u r s a d e c o b a l t 6 0 .
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
N i c h e l u l n u t r e c e d i r e c t n s t a r e a f u n d a m e n t a l d a t o r i t r e g u l i l o r d e s e l e c ci e , t r e c e n t r - o s t a r e m a i p u ci n e x c i t a t d u p c a r e n s t a r e a f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n d e z i n t e g r r i g a m a .
F i g . 5 . S c h e m a d e z i n t e g r r i i s u r s e i d e c o b a l t
n t r e R _i n u m r u l d e n u c l e e d i n s u r s d e z i n t e g r a t e n u n i t a t e a d e t i m p e x i s t r e l a ci a :
R = ( G s ) , s f a c t o r d e s c h e m , G f a c t o r g e o m e t r i c . P u t e m s c r i e l e g e a d e d e z i n t e g r a r e _i p e n t r u v i t e z a d e n u m r a r e :
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
M e t o d e l e d e m s u r a r e a a c t i v i t ci i u n e i s u r s e r a d i o a c t i v e s u n t d e d o u f e l u r i : a b s o l u t e _i r e l a t i v e .
M e t o d e l e a b s o l u t e p r e z i n t m e t o d a g e o m e t r i c _i m e t o d a c o i n c i d e n ce l o r .
M e t o d a g e o m e t r i c p r e s u p u n e o s u r s c u o a c t i v i t a t e p e c a r e t r e b u i e s o m s u r m s i t u a t l a o d i s t a n c f a c d e d e t e c t o r _i d e t e r m i n m v i t e z a d e n u m r a r e a d e t e c t o r u l u i . T r e b u i e s c u n o a _t e m t i p u l d e r a d i o n u c l i d _i m o d u l d e d e z i n t e g r a r e p e n t r u a _t i f a c t o r u l d e s c h e m s . C u n o s c n d t i p u l d e r a d i a ci e e m i s _i t i p u l d e d e t e c t o r s e p o a t e l u a d i n t a b e l e v a l o a r e a l u i .
G = E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 , E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 ( B q )
U n i t a t e a d e m s u r a a c t i v i t ci i s u r s e i n S . I . e s t e B e c q u e r e l ( 1 B q = d e s c r c a r e / s e c u n d ) .
1 C u r i e = 3 , 7 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 B q r e p r e z i n t a c t i v i t a t e a u n u i g r a m d e r a d i u .
M e t o d a s e n u m e _t e g e o m e t r i c d e o a r e c e t r e b u i e e v a l u a t d .
M e t o d a r e l a t i v p r e s u p u n e e x i s t e n ca u n e i s u r s e e t a l o n a c r u i a c t i v i t a t e e s t e c u n o s c u t _i v r e m s e x p r i m m a c t i v i t a t e a u n e i s u r s e x n f u n c ci e d e a c t i v i t a t e a s u r s e i e t a l o n e . S e f a c e o m s u r t o a r e c u s u r s a e t a l o n _i u n a c u c e a c u a c t i v i t a t e n e c u n o s c u t n a c e l e a _i c o n d i ci i g e o m e t r i c e _i c u a c e l a _i d e t e c t o r .
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
D a r : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 d e o a r e c e a v e m a c e l e a _i c o n d i ci i g e o m e t r i c e , a c e l a _i t i p d e s u r s _i a c e l a _i d e t e c t o r . n a c e s t e c o n d i ci i a v e m
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 .
M r i m i c a r a c t e r i s t i c e :
1 . C o n s t a n t a d e d e z i n t e g r a r e . O d e t e r m i n m p l e c n d d e l a E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 .
F i g . 6 . G r a f i c u l d e z i n t e g r r i i r a d i o a c t i v e
L o g a r i t m m _i o b ci n e m : l n R = l n R 0 - t
F i g . 7 .
P a n t a d r e p t e i d i n f i g u r a 7 . R e p r e z i n t v a l o a r e a c o n s t a n t e i d e d e z i n t e g r a r e .
2 . T i m p u l d e n j u m t ci r e T r e p r e z i n t i n t e r v a l u l d e t i m p d u p c a r e n u m r u l d e n u c l e e r m a s e n e d e z i n t e g r a t e n s u r s s e r e d u c e l a j u m t a t e .
N ( T ) = E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
D a c c u n o a _t e m p u t e m d e t e r m i n a t i m p u l d e n j u m t ci r e . P e n t r u n u c l i z i i c a r e a u t i m p u l d e n j u m t ci r e r e l a t i v m i c ( d e o r d i n u l o r e l o r , z i l e l o r ) a c e s t a p o a t e f i d e t e r m i n a t d i r e c t p r i n v a r i a ci a v i t e z e i d e n u m r a r e n t i m p .
3 . T i m p u l m e d i u d e v i a c v i a ca m e d i e a n u c l i z i l o r d i n s u r s a r a d i o a c t i v . S e d e f i n e _t e c a o m e d i e s t a t i s t i c :
E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
D u p i n t e g r a r e r e z u l t a E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
4 . A c t i v i t a t e a s p e c i f i c s r e p r e z i n t a c t i v i t a t e a u n i t ci i d e m a s d e p r e p a r a t r a d i o a c t i v . E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 .
D a c p r e p a r a t u l e s t e l i c h i d s e d e f i n e _t e s u b f o r m a : E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3
A c t i v i t a t e a s p e c i f i c e s t e u t i l p e n t r u a p r e p a r a s u r s e d e a c t i v i t a t e d a t d i n t r - o s u r s m a i m a r e d e s u b s t a n c r a d i o a c t i v .
R a d i a t i a a l f a
C e r c e t r i l e e x p e r i m e n t a l e a u a r t a t c r a d i a ci i l e a l f a s u n t c o n s t i t u i t e d i n p a r t i c u l e n c r c a t e p o z i t i v c a r e s - a u d o v e d i t a f i n u c l e e d e E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 H e n m i _c a r e r a p i d , a v n d o v i t e z a p r o x i m a t i v 2 0 E M B E D E q u a t i o n . 3 . M a j o r i t a t e a n u c l i z i l o r r a d i o a c t i v i n a t u r a l i e m i t r a d i a ci i a l f a . n u r m a u n e i d e z i n t e g r r i i a l f a , n u c l i d u l d e r i v a t e s t e s i t u a t n t a b e l u l l u i M e n d e l e e v c u d o u c s u ce l a s t n g a n u c l i d u l u i g e n e r a t o r :
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A c e s t e r a d i a ci i n u s u n t i n f l u e n ca t e d e c m p u l e l e c t r i c s a u m a g n e t i c . E l e s u n t d e n a t u r e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c _i p o t s u f e r i f e n o m e n e d e r e f l e x i e r e f r a c ci e , d i f r a c ci e _i i n t e r f e r e n c.
R a d i a ci i l e g a m a n s o ce s c d e z i n t e g r r i l e a l f a a t u n c i c a n d n u c l e u l d e r i v a t , a f l a t n t r - o s t a r e e x c i t a t , r e v i n e l a s t a r e a f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n e m i s i e d e f o t o n i g a m a .
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